External Publications Using GUI Data

Objectives
Migrant youths endure many challenges. Such challenges can be stressful and lead to psychological difficulties. We investigated the relationship between migration, psychopathology and stressful events in children and adolescents. We hypothesised that migrant youths would show higher levels of psychopathology and more stressful life events than non-migrant youths.

Method
Using the Child cohort (Cohort ‘98) of the ‘Growing up in Ireland’ study we investigated psychopathology, as measured by the Strengths and Difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) at age 9 and 13 and stressful life events in migrant and non-migrant youths.

Results
There was no significant difference between the proportion of migrant and non-migrant youths reporting psychopathology in childhood (p>0.05) or adolescence (p>0.05). Analysis of the SDQ subscales revealed that a significantly greater proportion of migrant youths had hyperactivity problems in childhood (p = 0.04) but a greater proportion of non-migrant youths had emotional problems in early adolescence (p = 0.04). We found that migrant youths experienced significantly more stressful life events than their non-migrant counterparts (p<0.01), however, once ‘Moving house/country‘ was removed as a stressor, there was no difference between the groups (p>0.27).

Conclusions
Contrary to our hypothesis, we observed that there were few differences between migrant and non-migrant youths in the levels of psychopathology. Migrant youths experienced a greater number of stressful life events, however, this was attributable to stressors relating to moving. An increased understanding of the factors promoting resilience, as demonstrated by the migrant youths, could aid health professionals and policy makers to effectively tailor interventions for mental health promotion.

Keywords
Early life stress, immigration, migrants, psychopathology

Background
The COVID-19 pandemic has been dubbed the “biggest public health crisis since the Second World War”. In Ireland, schools were closed for 141 days, dramatically altering the day to day lives of children in Ireland. This research aimed to evaluate the overall wellbeing of schoolchildren in Ireland and capture the prevalence and factors contributing to poor mental health.

Methods
A cross-sectional study was performed based on data from the Growing Up in Ireland COVID-19 web survey of the ’08 Infant cohort. Mental Health Inventory-5 scores were used to assess children at risk of mental health disorders. Logistic regression examined associations between various demographic and psychosocial factors and risk of mental health disorders.

Results
This study included 2,867 primary caregiver- child dyads. Almost 25% of 12/13-year-olds were at risk of mental health disorders (MHDs). An adjusted logistic regression model found associations between being at higher risk of MHDs and factors such as reduced physical activity levels (OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.10-1.66), spending less time outdoors (OR 1.48, 95% CI 1.18-1.85), increased screen-time (OR 1.35, 95% CI 1.09-1.67) and increased arguments with PCGs (OR 3.44, 95% CI 2.78-4.27). Having a trusted adult confidante reduced the risk of MHD (OR 0.25, 95% CI 0.14-0.45).

Conclusions
The prevalence of 12/13-year olds at elevated risk of MHD was high, indicating an urgent need for enhancement of child and adolescent mental health services in Ireland. Physical activity, time outdoors and supportive relationships with primary caregivers were positively associated with reduced MHD risk.

Key messages

• Children were impacted by the COVID-19 restriction measures in a way that was disproportionate to their risk.
• To reduce the risk of poor mental health outcomes for a generation of “quarantweens” we need to place children front-andcentre of our response as we recover from COVID-19.

BACKGROUND
Early studies show that children might be ‘resilient’ when families navigate economic crises and related job loss. What resilience means is unclear, though, and why and from whom resilience is required has seldom been examined.

OBJECTIVE
I theorise children’s prosociality – helping, supporting and comforting others – as a form of transformative resilience. From a social reproduction perspective, I also consider how prosociality imbues and is influenced by caregiving relationships within families. I examine how children’s prosociality/caregiving (unpaid labour) developed in response to parents losing and regaining employment (paid labour) amid the Great Recession in Ireland.

METHOD
I rely on cohort data from children’s early years to adolescence (Growing Up in Ireland, 2008-2022). I estimate growth-curve and OLS models for prosocial development and outcomes tapping into paid and unpaid labour. Associations with parental job loss are identified net of observables while outlining conditions for causal claims. FINDINGS Children whose mothers experienced job loss are rated more prosocial than their peers from middle childhood onwards. Girls with younger siblings drive this finding. At age 13, the same group is more likely to provide regular care within the household, while their mothers scale back caregiving and reprise paid work after heightened childcare responsibilities during the crisis.

CONTRIBUTION
The study contributes to debates on the formation of prosociality, the intergenerational consequences of job loss, and the household division of labour among adults and children. Findings suggest focusing on if and how families cope with a context unequally structured by (labour) markets and gender norms.

In an effort to promote optimal health in all children, 24-hour movement guidelines that provide specific recommendations for physical activity, screen-time, and sleep have been developed (≥ 1 hour of physical activity, ≤ 2 hours of screen-time, 9-11 hours of sleep). Children who meet the recommendations for these health behaviours are less likely to be obese than those who do not meet them. This study compared the degree to which children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and typically developing (TD) children met the newly developed 24-hour movement guidelines. A propensity-score matched sample of 72 children (36 children with ASD, 36 TD children) from the “Growing Up in Ireland” study was included in the analysis. Based on parents’ completion of time-use diaries, fewer children with ASD, compared to TD children, met the recommendations for screentime (58.3% vs. 80.6%, p=0.07, V=0.24) and physical activity (41.7% vs. 69.4%, p=0.03, V=0.28). Children with ASD were most likely to meet two guidelines (44.4%), whereas TD children most commonly met all three guidelines (55.6%). The findings highlight the breadth of health behaviours that require intervention among children with ASD. The current study suggests that examining the movement behaviours that constitute a 24-hour period for children with ASD may be useful to inform interventions to reduce their risk for sub-optimal health.

Keywords: Physical activity; Screen-time; Sleep; Autistic; exercise; sedentary behaviour; health; overweight; obesity

Objective
This study examines the association between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and overweight/obesity in a large-scale longitudinal study of children, while controlling for a range of psychosocial factors.

Method
Data were obtained from Growing Up in Ireland, a nationally representative and longitudinal study of approximately 6500 children who were assessed at 9 and 13 years of age. Body mass index (BMI) was determined using measured height and weight, ADHD status was determined by parent reports of professional diagnoses and ADHD symptoms were measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ).

Results
The associations between ADHD status, ADHD symptoms (SDQ) and BMI category at age 9 and 13 years were evaluated using logistic regression. Adjustments were made for child factors (sex, developmental coordination disorder, emotional symptoms, conduct problems, birth weight and exercise) and parental factors (socio-economic status, parental BMI, parental depression, and maternal smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy). Logistic regression indicated that ADHD status was not associated with BMI category at 9 or at 13 years of age, but children with ADHD at 9 years were significantly more likely to be overweight/obese at 13 years than those without ADHD. However, when other child and parental factors were adjusted for, ADHD status was no longer significantly associated with weight status. Female sex, low levels of exercise, overweight/obese parents and prenatal smoking during pregnancy consistently increased the odds of childhood overweight/obesity.

Conclusions
While ADHD and overweight/obesity co-occur in general populations, this relationship is largely explained by a variety of psychosocial factors.

Keywords
ADHD, longitudinal, obesity, overweight, psychosocial

This report uses data collected on Cohort ’98 of the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) study at 9, 13 and 171 years of age to examine the individual, family, peer, school and neighbourhood factors associated with adolescent behaviour patterns. The study adopts a multidimensional approach and draws on multiple informants, looking at six types of behaviour. Externalising behaviour relates to conduct (‘acting out’) and concentration difficulties. Internalising behaviour relates to negativity directed towards the self (i.e. mood or emotional difficulties) and difficulties interacting with peers, while prosocial behaviour is an indicator of positive development, reflecting positive interaction with others. All three are measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), are based on reports from the primary caregiver (usually, the mother2) and are therefore likely to capture behaviour within the family or home context. Behaviour at school is captured using information on school-based misbehaviour (such as ‘messing’ in class) and on truancy, reported by the young person themselves. Antisocial behaviour, also based on the young person’s report, reflects behaviour in the wider community (such as graffiti or damaging property). The study addresses the following research questions: 1. What patterns of (mis)behaviour are found among young people at 9, 13 and 17 years of age? To what extent do these patterns relate to differences in family resources, namely, social class, parental education and household income? 2. To what extent does adolescent behaviour reflect the social mix of the school, over and above the effects of individual family background (including parental education, income and social class)? 3. To what extent does adolescent behaviour reflect the social composition of the neighbourhood, over and above the effects of individual family background? 4. What family, peer, school and neighbourhood factors help to reduce the incidence of behaviour difficulties among young people?

Despite dramatic changes in Irish special education policy during the last decade, there is little understanding of the factors influencing how special educational needs (SEN) are identified and whether identification varies across different school contexts. International research has tended to focus on how individual child characteristics influence SEN identification. Less attention has been given to other factors such as teacher characteristics or school social mix. Using data from the nine-year-old cohort of the Growing Up in Ireland study, this article examines which children are most likely to be identified with different SEN types taking into account student social background characteristics, teacher characteristics and school social mix. Findings show that children attending highly disadvantaged school contexts are far more likely to be identified with behavioural problems and less likely to be identified with learning disabilities than children with similar characteristics attending other schools. It seems that ‘behavioural’ issues take precedence over learning difficulties in these schools pointing to a culture of care/containment rather than academic progress.

Keywords
SEN identification, gender, social background, teacher characteristics, school context

Background
Independent associations between screen time (ST)/physical activity (PA) and overweight (OW)/obesity have been demonstrated but little research exists on the role of ST among sufficiently active children.

Purpose
To examine the combined influence of ST and PA on risk of OW/obesity in a nationally representative sample of 9-year-old Irish children.

Methods
The sample in this cross sectional analysis contained 8568 children. Self-report parent data were used to group children into ST and PA categories and related to OW/obesity using forced entry logistic regression.

Results
High ST (> 3 hours/day), bedroom TV and mobile phone ownership increased risk of OW/obesity in high and low active children (P < .05). Low PA (<9 bouts fortnightly) was also associated with OW/obesity. In combined analyses, OW/obesity was lowest in the reference low ST/high PA group with ORs of 1.38, 1.63, and 2.07, respectively, in the low ST/low PA, high ST/high PA, and high ST/low PA groups. Access to electronic media, low socioeconomic status, parental obesity, and not engaging in sports were all related to high ST (P < .05).

Conclusion
This study supports findings that ST is associated with OW/Obesity demonstrating this separately in high and low active children.

With screen use becoming more prevalent at a younger age, it is important to research the possible impact screen use has on early cognitive development. The current study examines the screen use of 9001 5-year-olds and their reasoning abilities, using data from the Growing Up in Ireland study. Results show that both the amount of daily screen time, along with the type of screen activity children mostly engage in (video games, educational games, TV/video watching, or a mix of all of these activities), have an impact on 5-year-olds’ reasoning ability. Children who mostly engaged in a mix of activities for under three hours a day scored higher on a reasoning ability task than those who engaged in more than three hours of screen time, or those who engaged in an individual screen activity (e.g., television watching) rather than a mix of activities. However, the results also show screen use plays a very minor role in the development of reasoning ability. Consequently, other factors (e.g., home learning environment, parental education levels) should also be investigated when examining the role of screen use in cognitive development. The implications of these findings may therefore be of interest to parent, educators and policy-makers.

The notion that digital-screen engagement decreases adolescent well-being has become a recurring feature in public, political, and scientific conversation. The current level of psychological evidence, however, is far removed from the certainty voiced by many commentators. There is little clear-cut evidence that screen time decreases adolescent well-being, and most psychological results are based on single-country, exploratory studies that rely on inaccurate but popular self-report measures of digital-screen engagement. In this study, which encompassed three nationally representative large-scale data sets from Ireland, the United States, and the United Kingdom (N = 17,247 after data exclusions) and included time-use-diary measures of digital-screen engagement, we used both exploratory and confirmatory study designs to introduce methodological and analytical improvements to a growing psychological research area. We found little evidence for substantial negative associations between digital-screen engagement—measured throughout the day or particularly before bedtime—and adolescent well-being.

The transition from primary to secondary school represents one of the key junctions in the educational career of young people. Research has shown that much of the challenge in this transition stems from changing social structures and encountering different learning environments. However, the transition experiences of students with special educational needs (SEN) have received relatively little attention. Drawing on large-scale longitudinal data from over 7000 young people, we examine the extent to which students with different SEN experience additional transition barriers to their peers. The findings show that young people with SEN are more likely to experience a negative transition to secondary school. Furthermore, the type of need matters and students with general learning disabilities and intellectual disabilities are three times more likely to experience poor transition compared to young people without SEN. Transition experiences also vary by gender and socio-economic status, with girls and lower socio-economic groups more at risk. This paper highlights the importance of supporting students through to their second year in secondary education, promoting positive teacher–student interactions and providing additional supports for those with lower achievement in primary school. For students with disabilities, the research highlights a need for more effective transition supports, particularly during the pre-transition period.

Keywords
Transition, academic supports, social supports, special educational needs, secondary school

Adolescence and young adulthood are critical periods in the development of healthy sexual health and relationships, as patterns of behaviour that develop during these life stages shape outcomes throughout the life course. Recent rises in notifications of certain sexually transmitted infections (STIs) among young people in Ireland have raised concerns over the extent to which young people have the skills and information to make healthy choices in relation to their sexual health and wellbeing. In this context, sexual health literacy – i.e., the degree to which individuals have the ability to find, understand and use information and services to inform decisions and actions – is a key protective factor for the prevention of negative sexual health outcomes and for allowing young people to be more in control of their own sexual and reproductive health. In this report, we used data from Cohort ’98 of Growing Up in Ireland, the national longitudinal study of children and young people in Ireland, to examine the factors associated with sexual health literacy among young adults, and how sexual health literacy is associated with sexual health behaviours (i.e., condom and contraception use). The Growing Up in Ireland data on sexual health literacy were collected in 2018 when the young people were 20 years of age, and the measure of sexual health literacy was based on answers to two questions that gauged knowledge of female fertility and STI prevention methods.

The experience of sexual intercourse for the first time is a significant life event, and influenced by a range of individual, cultural and societal factors. Age of first sexual initiation is a major area of policy and research focus, as the circumstances of first sex (e.g. whether contraception was used, whether it was perceived to have occurred ‘at the right time’), and the consequences of first sex for later outcomes (e.g. diagnoses of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), early parenthood), have important implications for health and wellbeing. In this report, we use data from the ’98 Cohort of Growing Up in Ireland (GUI), the national longitudinal study of children and young people in Ireland, to examine the factors associated with age of sexual initiation among young adults, and the way in which age of first sex influences the circumstances of first sex and selected outcomes. Age and circumstances of first sex, and selected outcomes, are all based on data collected during the fourth wave of data collection for the ’98 Cohort of GUI, when the young people were 20 years of age.

This paper assesses the role of shadow education (SE), i.e. organised learning activities outside formal schooling, in the lives of secondary school students of different social backgrounds and in different school settings, in a high-stakes context. It draws on multilevel analysis of longitudinal Growing Up in Ireland data, alongside narratives from in-depth case study research in 10 schools. Framed within a social reproduction approach, we show how access to SE as an educational resource is socially stratified, accessible to those with greater levels of family resources, and those attending schools with higher socio-economic student intakes. SE is viewed as an investment, particularly among students with average and above average levels of prior attainment, while high attaining students are less likely to use SE. Perhaps reflecting the normalisation of SE in the Irish context, students do not directly link engagement in such tuition to their socio-emotional wellbeing.

This paper assesses the role of shadow education (SE), i.e., organised learning activities outside formal schooling, in the lives of secondary school students of different social backgrounds and in different school settings, in a high-stakes context. It draws on multilevel analysis of longitudinal Growing Up in Ireland data, alongside narratives from in-depth case study research in 10 schools. Framed within a social reproduction approach, we show how access to SE as an educational resource is socially stratified, accessible to those with greater levels of family resources, and those attending schools with higher socio-economic student intakes. SE is viewed as an investment, particularly among students with average and above average levels of prior attainment, while high attaining students are less likely to use SE. Perhaps reflecting the normalisation of SE in the Irish context, students do not directly link engagement in such tuition to their socio-emotional wellbeing.

Educational expectations and the way in which they shape actual outcomes act as an important vehicle for the intergenerational reproduction of social inequality. This article draws on rich information from the Growing Up in Ireland longitudinal study to explore the factors influencing the educational expectations of 13-year-old young people and their parents. The findings point to high levels of expectations among parents but one-third of young people are found to hold lower expectations than their parents. Both sets of expectations are shaped by parental education, social class and household income, though parental expectations are more strongly structured by social background than those of young people. The article seeks to contribute to the literature on educational expectations in three interrelated ways. Firstly, it focuses on a phase of schooling, the transition to secondary education, which represents a time of significant change in young people’s learning experiences, and transition difficulties are found to dampen their expectations. Secondly, the analyses unpack the extent to which signals from the school influence parental perspectives, with academic achievement, child attitudes to maths, ability group assignment and teacher reprimands emerging as significant drivers of parental views of their children’s potential. Thirdly, the analyses take account of both the primary and secondary school attended and indicate significant between-school differences in young people’s intentions to go on to higher education.

Keywords
Educational expectations, social class differences, parent influence, school effects

International studies have raised concerns about the academic and social implications of inclusive policies on school engagement and successful learning and, in particular, on the ways in which friendships are formed between students with SEN and other students. This article stems from research findings which show that Irish children with special educational needs like school less than their peers without SEN in mainstream settings. Using data from a large scale longitudinal study of 8578 9-year-olds, this paper uses a child centred research approach to investigate why this is the case particularly when they are in receipt of supports. To do this, we focus on processes underlying their dislike of school such as their academic engagement and social/peer relations. We measure academic engagement by looking at their interest in the subjects mathematics and reading and the extent to which they complete their homework. We examine the social/peer relations of students with special educational needs by assessing the extent to which they report liking their teacher. Using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) Scale and the Piers-Harris Self-Concept Scale we also examine the nature of peer relations among children with special educational needs in mainstream settings. Both academic engagement and social engagement play a central role in understanding the broader school engagement of children with special educational needs. By simultaneously examining the role of academic and social relations in shaping the engagement of children with SEN, the analysis provides a unique opportunity to fundamentally assess the barriers to true inclusion for children with special needs.

Keywords
special educational needs, inclusive education, school engagement, academic engagement, peer relations

Background
Tobacco use is closely linked to social and health inequalities, including economic vulnerability, morbidity, and premature death. Young adults with disabilities experience significant social and material hardships, which may be exacerbated by tobacco use. Limited research exists on smoking and e-cigarette use in this population. This study examines the prevalence of disability among young adults in Ireland, compares smoking and e-cigarette use between those with and without disabilities, identifies protective and risk factors, explores shared risk factors, and evaluates disability as an independent risk factor for smoking and e-cigarette use.

Methods
We analysed weighted data from 4,729 20-year-olds in the Growing Up in Ireland Cohort ’98 study who were present in Waves 1 (2008), 3 (2016), and 4 (2019). Current smoking, e-cigarette use, disability (excluding mental ill-health) and all other variables were assessed at Wave 4, while peer smoking data were drawn from Wave 3. Analyses were conducted using SPSS version 27.

Results
18.1% of participants reported a disability, which was associated with significantly higher smoking (41.8% vs. 36.7%) and e-cigarette use (16.1% vs. 12.9%). Protective factors against both behaviours included being female (OR 0.87 for smoking, OR 0.57 for e-cigarettes), later smoking initiation (OR 0.35, OR 0.62), living in two-parent families (OR 0.83, OR 0.70), and physical activity (smoking only). Risk factors included having peers who smoked (OR 3.67 for smoking; OR 2.36 for e-cigarette use) and caregivers who smoked (OR 1.48, OR 1.48), being employed at age 20 (OR 1.58, OR 1.48), and social media engagement (smoking only). Young adults with disabilities were significantly more likely to experience risk factors (e.g., earlier smoking initiation, caregivers who smoked, one-parent families, employment) but were less likely to have peers who smoked or engage with social media. Disability was independently associated with a higher likelihood of smoking (by 54%) and e-cigarette use (by 36%) after adjusting for protective and risk factors.

Conclusion
Higher smoking and e-cigarette use in 20-year-olds with disabilities adds further inequality to their lives. Increased awareness, targeted surveys and focused prevention and therapeutic interventions are required to reduce inequalities in this population and hasten the tobacco endgame.