External Publications Using GUI Data

This study uses Growing Up in Ireland data to examine how 9,000 children adjusted to primary school. It finds that the vast majority of five year olds are positive about school, look forward to going to school and say good things about school. The study showed that children start school with different skills and capacities and some children face greater challenges. The study suggests a number of ways to help all children experience a positive transition to primary school.

To date, studies using cross-sectional methodologies make up a majority of the literature surrounding children with autism spectrum disorders and participation in physical activity and screen time. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine how physical activity and screen time behaviors co-develop for children with and without an autism spectrum disorder. To address this research gap, this study compared how physical activity and screen time levels changed over time (9 to 18 years of age) between youth with autism spectrum disorder and youth with neurotypical development. Data on the levels of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, light physical activity, television-, and video game-based screen time, collected as a part of the “Growing up in Ireland” study, were compared between youth with autism spectrum disorder and a propensity-matched sample of youth with neurotypical development (n = 88 per group; 176 in total). Robust regression analyses indicated that children with autism spectrum disorder became less active over time compared to children with neurotypical development and that video game screen time also differed significantly between the groups when children were 9 years old. These findings elucidate important disparities present between these groups of children during pivotal developmental times.

To describe response rates and characteristics associated with response to the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System study in Ireland (PRAMS Ireland). Using hospital discharge records of live births at a large, urban, obstetric hospital, a sampling frame of approximately 2,400 mother-infant pairs were used to alternately sample 1,200 women. Mothers’ information including name, address, parity, age and infant characteristics such as sex and gestational age at delivery were extracted from records. Modes of contact included an invitation letter with option to opt out of the study, three mail surveys, a reminder letter and text message reminder for remaining non-respondents. Sixty-one per cent of women responded to the PRAMS Ireland survey over a 133 day response period. Women aged <30, single women, multiparous women and women with a preterm delivery were less likely to respond. Women participating in PRAMS Ireland were similar to the national birth profile in 2011 which had a mean age of 32, were 40 % primiparous, 33 % single or never married and had a 28 % caesarean section rate. Survey and protocol changes are required to increase response rates above recommended Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) thresholds of 65 % within the recommended 90 day data collection cycle. Additional efforts such as stratification and over-sampling are required to increase representativeness among hard to reach groups such as younger, single and multiparous women before expanding the project to an ongoing, national surveillance system in Ireland.

Using data from Ireland’s national longitudinal study of children, this paper employs a capabilities approach to disability to understand how individual characteristics as well as home and school environmental factors at age 9 relate to academic and socio-emotional outcomes of students with special educational needs (SEN) at age 17. Results suggest that young people with SEN register both lower average scores and make less academic progress between the age of 9 and their national lower secondary examination, with the exception of young people with a physical SEN. Both home and school environmental factors at 9 years have long-term associations with the academic outcomes of young people with SEN, after controlling for individual characteristics and prior academic achievement. Home and school environmental factors had less consistent associations with the socio-emotional outcomes of young people with SEN. By using rigorous nationally representative longitudinal data, this paper offers a more holistic understanding of the development of young people with SEN. The paper also provides important evidence that a more inclusive approach for supporting students with additional needs, their parents, and their schools is needed.

Keywords
Special educational needs, capabilities approach, academic achievement, socio-emotional outcomes, Growing Up in Ireland

Using the first wave of the Growing Up in Ireland Survey of nine year old children we examine whether a teacher’s assessment of their pupil’s academic ability is influenced by the weight status of the child and/or the child’s mother. Multivariate regression analyses of the teacher’s assessment, controlling for the child’s actual test performance, their BMI, their mother’s BMI, other socio-demographic and teacher characteristics were undertaken. The study highlighted that child BMI was not a significant determinant but that children whose mother was obese were more likely to be rated as below average in reading and in maths compared to those whose mother was leaner, after adjusting for their measured ability. The potential for mother’s weight status to influence teachers’ assessments of their children’s perceived ability could have long term ramifications for educational outcomes and warrants further study.

We analyse parental smoking and cessation (quitting) associations with teenager e-cigarette, alcohol, tobacco smoking and other drug use, and explore parental smoking as a mechanism for social reproduction. We use data from Waves 1–3 of Growing Up in Ireland (Cohort ’98). Our analytic sample consisted of n = 6,039 participants reporting in all 3 Waves. Data were collected in Waves 1 and 2 when the children were 9 and 13 years old and in Wave 3 at age 17/18 years. Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) models were used to analyse teenage substance use at Wave 3. Parental smoking was associated with significantly increased risk of all teenage substance use, adjusted odds ratios were aOR2.13 (ever e-cigarette use); aOR1.92 (ever alcohol use); aOR1.88 (current alcohol use); aOR1.90 (ever use of other drugs); aOR2.10 (ever-smoking); and aOR1.91 (current smoking). Primary caregiver smoking cessation (quitting) was associated with a lower risk for teenager current smoking aOR0.62, ever e-cigarette use aOR 0.65 and other drug use aOR 0.57. Primary caregiver smoking behaviour had greater associations than secondary, and age13 exposure more than age 9. Habitus seems to play a role and wealth was protective for teenage smoking. The findings suggest that prevention interventions should target both caregivers and their children.

What does young adulthood look like for individuals who had mental health problems across childhood? Using the Growing Up in Ireland cohort (born in 1998 and studied from ages 9 to 20) we explored the association between mental health problems between ages 9 and 13, and subsequent poor outcomes in the same individuals at ages 17-20. We consider educational/economic outcomes, health service use, poor mental and physical health, social isolation, substance abuse, and subjective wellbeing in young adults. In a previous study that used latent class modelling, we identified four groups which captured mental health in a general population sample of children. Between ages 9 and 13, children could be grouped into: a low symptoms group (∼65%), an ‘externalising’ group with ADHD or conduct symptoms (∼20%), an ‘internalising’ group with depressive, anxiety or peer issues (∼10%), or a group showing many combined mental health symptoms (∼2%). All mental health problem groups had elevated odds across all 7 adverse outcomes in young adulthood. The 5 areas of young adult functioning most related to childhood mental health were: education/economics, subjective wellbeing, mental health, social isolation and substance abuse. Poor educational/economic outcomes were as likely as poor mental health (OR ∼ 2) in individuals with childhood psychopathology. The 3 childhood problem groups showed different risk profiles in young adulthood. For instance, the childhood internalising group had lower odds of substance abuse than all other groups, but had the highest odds of poor physical health by adulthood. Findings point to the need for a wider range of preventative supports for children and adolescents with a history of mental health problems, beyond just mental health support. These include interventions to improve physical health, treat substance abuse, reduce social isolation, and improve adverse educational and economic outcomes.

Whether breastfeeding is protective against the development of childhood overweight and obesity remains the subject of considerable debate. Although a number of meta-analyses and syntheses of the literature have concluded that the greater preponderance of evidence indicates that breastfeeding reduces the risk of obesity, these findings are by no means conclusive. The present study used data from the Growing Up in Ireland study to examine the relationship between retrospectively recalled breastfeeding data and contemporaneously measured weight status for 7798 children at nine-years of age controlling for a wide range of variables including; socio-demographic factors, the child’s own lifestyle-related behaviours, and parental BMI. The results of the multivariable analysis indicated that being breastfed for between 13 and 25 weeks was associated with a 38 percent (p < 0.05) reduction in the risk of obesity at nine-years of age, while being breastfed for 26 weeks or more was associated with a 51 percent (p < 0.01) reduction in the risk of obesity at nine-years of age. Moreover, results pointed towards a dose–response patterning in the data for those breastfed in excess of 4 weeks. Possible mechanisms conveying this health benefit include slower patterns of growth among breastfed children, which it is believed, are largely attributable to differences in the composition of human breast milk compared with synthesised formula. The suggestion that the choice of infant feeding method has important implications for health and development is tantalising as it identifies a modifiable health behaviour that is amenable to intervention in primary health care settings and has the potential to improve the health of the population.

Whether school composition makes a difference for student outcomes has been the subject of much controversy. This article draws on Growing Up in Ireland data, a rich source of information on nine-year-old children along with the characteristics of their school and classroom teacher. In contrast to many studies which rely on a single measure of social background, the use of a range of measures (including social class, parental education and income) allows us to provide precise estimates of differences in performance between schools designated as disadvantaged and other schools. The analyses also provide new insights into the processes underlying such differences. Only the most disadvantaged schools, those in Urban Band 1, are found to have a contextual effect for both reading and mathematics. This achievement gap is found to reflect differences in teacher experience and turnover, the concentration of additional learning needs, absenteeism levels and children’s engagement in school.

Keywords
school social mix, primary education, academic performance

While problems in the housing system in Ireland have been under the spotlight for the last decade, relatively little attention has been paid to the experience of children and to the consequences of housing issues for child development. International research has highlighted a range of effects of poor housing on children. Poor physical housing conditions has been associated with respiratory illnesses and childhood accidents. Overcrowding has been linked to poorer educational outcomes and deprived neighbourhood conditions to socio-emotional problems. Frequent residential mobility has also been found to lead to poorer cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes. However, there is a lack of evidence on how far these findings apply in Ireland where levels of home ownership are high and levels of neighbourhood segregation are lower. This study addresses this gap. Drawing on data from the ’08 Cohort of the Growing Up in Ireland study, we explore the housing conditions faced by children in early and middle childhood and the implications of these housing experiences for their cognitive, socio-emotional and health outcomes. We adopt a multi-dimensional approach to measuring housing conditions, incorporating housing tenure, suitability of accommodation, heating deprivation, neighbourhood disorder and housing mobility.

While research has investigated the effects of the Great Recession on the Irish economy using economic indicators or cross-sectional household-level data, this research note applies group-based multitrajectory modelling to provide a more nuanced approach. Using nationally representative, longitudinal data from the Growing Up in Ireland study, we analyse patterns in three common measures of economic well-being (financial strain; disposable income; material deprivation) across Irish households in the period leading up to, during and after the Great Recession, and subsequently, break down the characteristics for each group of trajectories. We identify six distinct trajectory clusters, which all indicate declining income and increasing financial strain from the start to the height of the economic depression. However, trajectory groupings show that experiences were far from uniform, with previous economic well-being and demographic characteristics shaping the household experience. Implications for future research are discussed.

While the role parents play in supporting young people is well established, support from other caring adults also becomes important during adolescence, particularly when young people are facing problems in their lives. The goal of this paper is to reflect on youth support seeking when facing problems, exploring differences between youth who seek support from parents only and those who seek support from parents and other non-parental adults. This paper outlines the findings of a secondary analysis of data from the third wave of the Growing up in Ireland child cohort at 17/18 years, collected from primary caregivers and youth. From 6126 young people in the national sample, 91.3% answered the selective question about the type of adult support they seek. Of this cohort, 36% of young people seek support from a parent and 48% go to a parent and another adult. Comparing these groups, there are significant differences found in both their individual and contextual characteristics, with better outcomes for youth with additional non-parental adult support, including using active coping strategies, better self-esteem, and identity resolution. While the findings indicate that non-parental adults have a positive influence in different areas of youth well-being, further research is required to better understand the ways in which support from non-parental adults helps young people in their transition to adulthood.

Keywords
Supportive adults, natural mentors, youth, transition to adulthood, parenting

Whilst there is a large evidence base demonstrating the impact of maternal depression on the development of adolescent internalising problems, less is known about the association between paternal depression and adolescent internalising problems, and the mechanisms through which risk is conferred. This study examined the association between paternal depression and adolescent internalising problems, investigating parenting style as a pathway through which this association may be mediated. Participants included 4048 families taking part in the Growing Up in Ireland child cohort study. Self-report measures of paternal depression were completed when the study child was aged 9. Adolescents assessed paternal demandingness, responsiveness and autonomy granting at the age of 13. Adolescent internalising symptoms were measured at the age of 17/18 by the primary caregiver. A parallel multiple mediator model was used to test the total and specific indirect effects of the three parenting styles, whilst controlling for covariates and other mediators in the model. A direct effect of paternal depression on adolescent internalising problems was found (B = .051, 95% CI: 0.020, 0.083). However, no support for mediation via any of the paternal parenting styles (i.e., responsiveness, demandingness, or autonomy-granting) were found. These findings build on an emerging evidence-base demonstrating a specific direct association between paternal depression and adolescent internalising problems, and suggest that interventions ought to also target fathers suffering from depression to help reduce the risk of adolescent internalising problems.

With screen use becoming more prevalent at a younger age, it is important to research the possible impact screen use has on early cognitive development. The current study examines the screen use of 9001 5-year-olds and their reasoning abilities, using data from the Growing Up in Ireland study. Results show that both the amount of daily screen time, along with the type of screen activity children mostly engage in (video games, educational games, TV/video watching, or a mix of all of these activities), have an impact on 5-year-olds’ reasoning ability. Children who mostly engaged in a mix of activities for under three hours a day scored higher on a reasoning ability task than those who engaged in more than three hours of screen time, or those who engaged in an individual screen activity (e.g., television watching) rather than a mix of activities. However, the results also show screen use plays a very minor role in the development of reasoning ability. Consequently, other factors (e.g., home learning environment, parental education levels) should also be investigated when examining the role of screen use in cognitive development. The implications of these findings may therefore be of interest to parent, educators and policy-makers.

Within categories of special educational needs, emotional and behavioural difficulties have received much attention in recent years, particularly in relation to their definition and identification by parents and teachers. This paper stems from previous research which highlights how children from disadvantaged backgrounds and those attending schools designated as socio-economically disadvantaged are significantly more likely than their peers to be identified as having a special educational need of a non-normative type such as emotional behavioural difficulty (EBD). Using data from the Growing Up in Ireland study, it examines whether the EBD identified by teachers or within certain schools is matched by the child’s own performance on an internationally validated emotional and mental health measure – the Piers–Harris. Findings show that overall self-reported social emotional well-being bears a strong relationship to the probability of being identified with an EBD. However, boys, children from economically inactive and one-parent households and children attending the most disadvantaged school contexts are more likely to be identified with having an EBD, even after taking into account their social background characteristics and their scoring on the Piers–Harris measure. These findings suggest that the subjective nature of EBD identification is resulting in a disproportionate number of these children being identified with EBD. The implications of this study are explored for existing disability/SEN classification systems, school-wide intervention models and the impact on individual students labelled as EBD. Overall, the findings pose searching questions about the validity of employing SEN classification systems in deciding eligibility and types of appropriate provision.

Worldwide, children do not meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity (PA) and a unified approach is required to increase children’s engagement in PA. Parents, are increasingly regarded as playing a key role in children’s PA behaviours. Physical activity parenting (PAP) is growing as a research field and refers to parental behaviours intended to influence children’s investment in PA. Using the perspectives of both parent and child, this research aims to identify PAP practices (positive and negative) engaged by Irish parents and to examine how PAP is embedded within a socioecological context. A purposive sample of 116 families in Ireland were included in the study. Families were stratified by social class, location, and family structure. Parents and children were interviewed and a secondary analysis of the interview data was completed. A theoretical model and conceptual framework relating to PAP guided data analysis to identify and understand parenting practices that influence children’s PA behaviour. Data was deductively analysed and key findings indicated that PAP practices of encouragement, involvement, and facilitation were positively associated with children’s engagement in structured sport activities. Co-participation was positively associated with children’s participation in unstructured PA. Mothers and fathers differed in their PA roles, with fathers engaged to a greater extent in involvement parental practices. Children from middle and higher socio-economic class families participated in a greater repertoire of structured PA and benefited from a greater diversity of PAP practices. Family context (social class, structure, size), community resources and organisational factors mediated the presence of PAP practices. Parents’ PA attributes and parents perceptions of PA attributes were less important influencers. Successful and effective engagement of parents in PA interventions is dependent on consideration of the various social contexts that are embedded in families.

Keywords
Physical activity parenting, physical activity, sport, children, social context

Young children born preterm may be more affected by environmental influences than their full-term peers. Few studies have investigated whether such effects exist for older children and young adolescents. With participants aged 9 and 13 years, we examine whether children born preterm could be differentially affected by the quality of their relationship with their mothers and fathers. We used the Growing Up in Ireland dataset: a longitudinal sample of 8,568 children in Ireland (51.4% female, 48.6% male) and their parents. We found that parent–child conflict was consistently associated with poorer verbal, numerical, and socioemotional outcomes; in some instances, parent–child closeness was associated with better outcomes. Being born very preterm was consistently associated with negative outcomes. We found support for a diathesis-stress model of preterm birth in just one instance: children born very preterm displayed a stronger relationship between maternal conflict and increased socioemotional difficulties.